How kinship is constructed and enacted in diverse family arrangements across Western societies
Imagine a family gathering. Who is there? For a growing number of people in Western societies, the answer to this question no longer automatically includes a married mother and father with their biological children. Instead, we might find children being raised by same-sex parents, single mothers by choice, families created through assisted reproduction, or close friends acknowledged as "chosen family" with the significance of blood relations.
Years of transformation in Western family systems
Drop in children living with both biological parents (1960-2015)
Over the past half-century, a remarkable transformation in family systems has taken place across Western industrialized societies. The institution of marriage, once nearly universal, has lost its hegemonic appeal, occurring later in life or not at all in many nations with advanced economies . In this quiet revolution, new family forms have proliferated, gaining legitimacy as alternatives to the once-standard nuclear family model 1 .
This article explores how kinship is constructed and enacted in these diverse family arrangements—from serial marriages to families created through reproductive technology to voluntary bonds that stand outside both biological and legal frameworks. The findings may surprise you, revealing both radical changes and surprising continuities in how we define and experience what it means to be family.
The statistical trends are clear: in 1960, 88% of all children in the United States lived with both biological parents. By 2015, this proportion had dropped to 65% . Similar though less dramatic shifts have occurred throughout Western nations . This diversification of family structures includes a sharp rise in cohabitation both as a prelude and alternative to marriage, increased divorce and remarriage creating complex family relationships, the legitimation of same-sex unions, and growing levels of voluntary childlessness .
This transformation represents what family scholar Frank Furstenberg describes as one of the "less examined features of global change in family systems"—how this shift has altered kinship conceptions and practices .
The study of kinship itself has undergone dramatic theoretical shifts. For much of the 20th century, kinship studies were dominated by what anthropologist David Schneider identified as a "biogenetic conception of kinship" . Schneider's groundbreaking work argued that kinship is fundamentally a cultural construction that cannot be derived solely from the "natural" world of biological connections .
This perspective opened the door for examining how kinship operates beyond traditional biological and marital ties, paving the way for research on the diverse family forms we see today. The question is no longer just "Who is related to whom?" but rather "How do people create and maintain meaningful kinship connections across different family structures?"
To understand how kinship works in alternative family forms, researchers Furstenberg, Harris, Pesando, and Reed conducted a systematic review of research on non-standard family forms 1 . Their methodology provides a fascinating window into how social scientists map the terrain of modern kinship.
The research team ran multiple searches on Google Scholar and Web of Science, using targeted search terms like "cohabitation and kinship," "same-sex family and kinship," and "Artificial Reproductive Technology and kinship" 1 . Their comprehensive approach identified studies focusing predominantly on the United States (about 70% of the research) with the remaining 30% focusing on other Western industrialized societies 1 .
The researchers faced a significant challenge: most alternative family forms have been examined in isolation rather than compared to one another . Studies typically focused on one type of family structure—such as divorced families, same-sex parents, or cohabiting couples—without exploring commonalities across different forms. The research team worked to synthesize these fragmented findings into a coherent understanding of how kinship operates across what they termed "three general processes" by which alternative family forms are created 1 .
| Research Aspect | Specific Approach | Geographic Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Database Searches | Google Scholar, Web of Science | ~70% United States |
| Search Terms | "cohabitation and kinship," "same-sex family and kinship," "ART and kinship" | ~30% Other Western Societies |
| Methodology | Systematic review of existing studies | Western industrialized societies |
The research identified three distinct clusters of alternative family forms, each with characteristic kinship practices and challenges.
This cluster emerges through variations of formal marriage or its absence. This includes sequential marriages (through divorce and remarriage), consensual unions (cohabitation), single parenthood, and same-sex marriages and partnerships 1 .
In these families, kinship practices often involve negotiating relationships across multiple households. For example, in sequential marriages, children may develop kinship connections with step-relatives, half-siblings, and their parents' former partners 1 . Research shows that these connections are highly variable—some become meaningful kinship ties while others remain peripheral 1 .
Same-sex couples often develop innovative approaches to kinship that challenge traditional gender roles and biological assumptions. Studies of lesbian and gay families reveal how couples creatively negotiate family scripts and kinship terms, sometimes borrowing from traditional models while at other times developing entirely new frameworks 1 3 .
This cluster results from alterations in reproduction, when a child is not the product of sexual intercourse between two people 1 . This includes families formed through assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as in vitro fertilization, surrogacy, and sperm or egg donation, as well as through adoption.
These family forms raise fascinating questions about the significance of biological connections. Researchers have found that the cultural importance of biology remains strong, even as families develop ways to incorporate non-biological connections into kinship frameworks 1 .
What proves remarkable is how families develop strategies to incorporate these various actors—donors, surrogates, birth parents—into their kinship networks or consciously choose not to do so 1 . There appears to be a broad cultural acceptance of an inclusive approach to incorporating potential kin, while largely leaving it to individuals to decide whether they recognize the emotional connectedness and perceived obligation that characterizes kinship bonds 1 .
This cluster results from the formation of voluntary bonds deemed to be kinship-like, where affiliation rests on neither biological nor legal bases 1 . Sometimes called "fictive kin" or "chosen family," these relationships fulfill many of the same functions as traditional kinship ties.
This form of kinship is particularly significant in LGBTQ+ communities, where individuals may develop chosen family relationships after experiencing rejection by biological relatives 3 . As one researcher notes, queer kinship "challenges the traditional nuclear family structure, which has been a cornerstone of societal norms" 3 .
These chosen families provide not only emotional support but also practical caregiving, financial assistance, and the profound sense of belonging and identity that traditional families provide for others.
| Cluster | How Formed | Examples | Kinship Dynamics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Variations in Marriage & Partnership | Changes in marital structures | Sequential marriages, cohabitation, single parenthood, same-sex partnerships | Negotiating relationships across households; creating new family scripts |
| Alterations in Reproduction | Assisted reproduction or adoption | ART families, surrogate families, adoptive families | Navigating biological connections; incorporating donors/birth parents |
| Voluntary Bonds | Chosen relationships | Chosen family, fictive kin, intentional communities | Creating kinship without biological or legal bases; providing mutual support |
Across these diverse family forms, researchers have identified consistent patterns in what creates and sustains kinship bonds.
Despite structural differences, alternative families often borrow from the vocabulary and parenting practices observed in standard family forms 1 . Terms like "aunt," "uncle," and "cousin" are often extended to non-related individuals who play significant roles in family life. This suggests that while family structures may change, many of the cultural tools for doing family remain consistent.
The language of "chosen family" used in queer communities, for instance, simultaneously challenges biological determinism while reaffirming the cultural value placed on family relationships 3 . As one analysis notes, queer kinship both "challenges traditional notions of family" and "creates new forms of community" based on shared experiences and identities 3 .
Perhaps surprisingly, given the proliferation of family forms that deliberately separate biological from social parenting, research reveals that the cultural importance of biology remains strong 1 . Families often go to great lengths to incorporate biological connections where possible—for instance, through using related donors in ART or maintaining connections with birth families in open adoptions.
At the same time, there is broad cultural acceptance that biology alone does not define family. The concept of "family as social construction" has moved from academic theory to widespread cultural understanding 1 . This dual recognition of both biological and social dimensions of kinship represents a significant evolution in how Western societies understand family relationships.
Shared Language
Rituals & Traditions
Mutual Care
Community Recognition
For those interested in understanding how researchers study kinship, here are some key concepts and methods used in the field.
Kinship through marriage or partnership. Used in studying relationships in sequential marriages or same-sex partnerships.
Kinship through biological descent. Applied when examining the role of biology in ART and adoptive families.
Voluntary kinship-like relationships. Central to research on chosen family in LGBTQ+ communities and elder support networks.
Everyday activities that "do family". Used when observing how alternative families create rituals and traditions.
Cultural models for family relationships. Applied when analyzing how alternative families adapt or challenge traditional models.
| Concept | Definition | Research Application |
|---|---|---|
| Affinal Kinship | Kinship through marriage or partnership | Studying relationships in sequential marriages or same-sex partnerships |
| Consanguineal Kinship | Kinship through biological descent | Examining the role of biology in ART and adoptive families |
| Fictive Kin | Voluntary kinship-like relationships | Research on chosen family in LGBTQ+ communities and elder support networks |
| Family Practices | Everyday activities that "do family" | Observing how alternative families create rituals and traditions |
| Kinship Scripts | Cultural models for family relationships | Analyzing how alternative families adapt or challenge traditional models |
The journey through alternative family forms reveals a fascinating landscape of human creativity and adaptation. Across diverse family structures, people continue to find ways to create and maintain meaningful kinship connections that provide support, identity, and belonging.
What emerges most powerfully from this research is the resilience of the human impulse to create kinship bonds, regardless of structure. As one analysis of queer kinship notes, these alternative arrangements are "not only a personal or familial phenomenon but also a deeply communal one" 3 . The construction and maintenance of kinship in everyday life remains crucial to creating and sustaining community across all family forms.
In the end, the story of alternative kinship practices is not one of family decline but rather of family diversification—a testament to the enduring human need for connection and the remarkable flexibility of social arrangements in meeting this fundamental need. As cultural representations of diverse family forms become more common in popular media 3 , and as research continues to document the myriad ways people create meaningful kinship connections, our understanding of what makes a family will likely continue to expand—challenging our assumptions and enriching our understanding of human relationships.